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<FONT COLOR="#FFFFFF">
<CENTER><B>CHAPTER 28.&nbsp; CONJUNCTIONS</B></CENTER></FONT></TD></TR></TABLE><BR>
<BR>

<!--page 403-->
A conjunction may be used to indicate the relationship between the ideas
expressed in a clause and the ideas expressed in the rest of a sentence.
The conjunctions in the following examples are printed in bold type.<BR>
e.g. We could go to the library, <B>or</B> we could go to the park.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He <B>neither</B> finished his homework <B>nor</B> studied for the test.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I went out <B>because</B> the sun was shining.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="1"></A>
<CENTER><B>1. Coordinate conjunctions</B></CENTER><BR>

Coordinate conjunctions are used to join two similar grammatical
constructions; for instance, two words, two phrases or two clauses.<BR>
e.g. My <U>friend</U> <B>and</B> <U>I</U> will attend the meeting.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Austria is famous for <U>the beauty of its landscape</U> <B>and</B> <U>the hospitality of its people.</U><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>The sun rose</U> <B>and</B> <U>the birds began to sing</U>.<BR>
<BR>
In these examples, the coordinate conjunction <B>and</B> is used to join the
two words <B>friend</B> and <B>I</B>, the two phrases <B>the beauty of its landscape</B>
and  <B>the hospitality of its people</B>, and the two clauses <B>the sun rose</B>
and <B>the birds began to sing</B>.<BR>
<A NAME="1ex"></A>
<BR>
The most commonly used coordinate conjunctions are <B>and</B>, <B>but</B> and <B>or</B>.
In addition, the words <B>nor</B> and <B>yet</B> may be used as coordinate
conjunctions. In the following table, each coordinate conjunction is followed by its meaning and an example of its use. Note the use of inverted word order in the clause beginning with <B>nor</B>.<BR>
<BR>
<CENTER><B>Coordinate Conjunctions</B></CENTER><BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><B>and</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; in addition</TD><TD>&nbsp; She tried <B>and</B> succeeded.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>but</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; however</TD><TD>&nbsp; They tried <B>but</B> did not succeed.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>or</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; alternatively</TD><TD>&nbsp; Did you go out <B>or</B> stay at home?</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>nor</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; and neither</TD><TD>&nbsp; I did not see it, <B>nor</B> did they.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>yet</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; however</TD><TD>&nbsp; The sun is warm, <B>yet</B> the air is cool.</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<BR>
As illustrated above, when a coordinate conjunction joins two verbs which
have the same subject, the subject need not be repeated. For instance,
in the example <B>she tried and succeeded</B>, the pronoun <B>she</B> acts as the
subject for both the verb <B>tried</B> and the verb <B>succeeded</B>. It should
also be noted that when a coordinate conjunction joins two verbs which
do not have the same subject, the two coordinate clauses may be separated
by a comma or semicolon, in order to make the meaning clear.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex28.html#1">Exercise 1</A>.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<!--page 404-->
<A NAME="2"></A>
<CENTER><B>2. Correlative conjunctions</B></CENTER><BR>

Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs, in order to show the
relationship between the ideas expressed in different parts of a
sentence. For instance, in the following example, the expression
<B>either ... or</B> is used to indicate that the ideas expressed in the
two clauses represent two alternative choices of action.<BR>
e.g. <B>Either</B> you should study harder, <B>or</B> you should take a different course.<BR>
<A NAME="2wo"></A>
<BR>
The most commonly used correlative conjunctions are <B>both ... and</B>, <B>either ... or</B> and <B>neither ... nor</B>. In the table below, each pair of correlative conjunctions is accompanied by an example of its use.
Note that in the construction <B>if ... then</B>, the word <B>then</B> can usually be omitted.<BR>
<BR>
<CENTER><B>Correlative Conjunctions</B></CENTER><BR>
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><B>both ... and</B></TD><TD> He is <B>both</B> intelligent <B>and</B> good-natured.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>either ... or</B></TD><TD> I will <B>either</B> go for a walk <B>or</B> read a book.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>neither ... nor</B></TD><TD> He is <B>neither</B> rich <B>nor</B> famous.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>hardly ... when</B></TD><TD> He had <B>hardly</B> begun to work, <B>when</B> he was interrupted.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>if ... then</B></TD><TD> <B>If</B> that is true, <B>then</B> what happened is not surprising.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>no sooner ... than</B></TD><TD> <B>No sooner</B> had I reached the corner, <B>than</B> the bus came.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>not only ... but also</B></TD><TD> She is <B>not only</B> clever, <B>but also</B> hard-working.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>rather ... than</B></TD><TD> I would <B>rather</B> go swimming <B>than</B> go to the library.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>scarcely ... when</B></TD><TD> <B>Scarcely</B> had we left home, <B>when</B> it started to rain.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>what with ... and</B></TD><TD> <B>What with</B> all her aunts, uncles <B>and</B> cousins, she has many relatives.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>whether ... or</B></TD><TD> Have you decided <B>whether</B> you will come <B>or</B> not?</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex28.html#2">Exercise 2</A>.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="3"></A>
<CENTER><B>3. Subordinate conjunctions</B></CENTER><BR>

As has been seen in previous chapters, subordinate clauses may begin
with relative pronouns such as <B>that</B>, <B>what</B>, <B>whatever</B>, <B>which</B>,
<B>who</B> and <B>whom</B>, as well as with words such as <B>how</B>, <B>when</B>, <B>where</B>,
<B>wherever</B> and <B>why</B>.

<!--page 405-->
In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are
underlined.<BR>
e.g. The house, <U>which stood on a hill</U>, could be seen for miles.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I wonder <U>how he did that</U>.<BR>
<BR>
In addition, subordinate clauses may also begin with words which are
commonly referred to as <B>subordinate conjunctions</B>. In the following
examples, the subordinate conjunctions are printed in bold type.<BR>
e.g. <B>Because</B> it was cold, I wore my winter coat.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Let us wait <B>until</B> the rain stops.<BR>
<BR>
The subordinate conjunctions below are accompanied by their meanings and examples of use.<BR>
<BR>
<CENTER><B>Subordinate Conjunctions</B></CENTER>

<A NAME="3as"></A>
<B>As</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. because:&nbsp; <B>As</B> he is my friend, I will help him.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. when:&nbsp; We watched <B>as</B> the plane took off.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3af"></A>
<B>After</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. later in time:&nbsp; <B>After</B> the train left, we went home.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3al"></A>
<B>Although</B> or <B>though</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. in spite of the fact that:&nbsp; <B>Although</B> it was after midnight, we did not feel tired.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3bf"></A>
<B>Before</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. earlier than:&nbsp; I arrived <B>before</B> the stores were open.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3bc"></A>
<B>Because</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. for the reason that:&nbsp; We had to wait, <B>because</B> we arrived early.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3fo"></A>
<B>For</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. for, because:&nbsp; He is happy, <B>for</B> he enjoys his work.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3if"></A>
<B>If</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. on condition that:&nbsp; <B>If</B> she is here, we will see her.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3le"></A>
<B>Lest</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. for fear that:&nbsp; I watched closely, <B>lest</B> he <U>make</U> a mistake.<BR>
<B>Note</B> the use of the Subjunctive Mood in the clause
with <B>lest</B>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3pr"></A>
<B>Providing</B> or <B>provided</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. on condition that:&nbsp; All will be well, <B>providing</B> you are careful.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3si"></A>
<B>Since</B> <BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. from a past time:&nbsp; I have been here <B>since</B> the sun rose.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. as, because:&nbsp; <B>Since</B> you are here, you can help me.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3so"></A>
<B>So</B> or <B>so that</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. consequently:&nbsp; It was raining, <B>so</B> we did not go out.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. in order that:&nbsp; I am saving money <B>so</B> I can buy a bicycle.<BR>
<B>Note</B>: When used with the meaning <B>in order that</B>,
<B>so</B> is usually followed by <B>that</B> in formal English.<BR>
e.g. I am saving money <B>so that</B> I can buy a bicycle.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3su"></A>
<B>Supposing</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. if:&nbsp; <B>Supposing</B> that happens, what will you do?<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3th"></A>
<B>Than</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. used in comparisons:&nbsp; He is taller <B>than</B> you are.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 406-->
<A NAME="3ul"></A>
<B>Unless</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. except when, if not:&nbsp; <B>Unless</B> he helps us, we cannot succeed.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3ut"></A>
<B>Until</B> or <B>till</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. up to the time when:&nbsp; I will wait <B>until</B> I hear from you.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3ws"></A>
<B>Whereas</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. because:&nbsp; <B>Whereas</B> this is a public building, it is open to everyone.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. on the other hand:&nbsp; He is short, <B>whereas</B> you are tall.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3wr"></A>
<B>Whether</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. if:&nbsp; I do not know <B>whether</B> she was invited.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3we"></A>
<B>While</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. at the time when:&nbsp; <B>While</B> it was snowing, we played cards.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. on the other hand:&nbsp; He is rich, <B>while</B> his friend is poor.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. although:&nbsp; <B>While</B> I am not an expert, I will do my best.<BR>
<BR>
In addition, the following phrases are often used at the beginning of
subordinate clauses.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3ai"></A>
<B>As if</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. in a similar way:&nbsp; She talks <B>as if</B> she knows everything.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3ala"></A>
<B>As long as</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. if:&nbsp; <B>As long as</B> we cooperate, we can finish the work easily.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. while:&nbsp; He has lived there <B>as long as</B> I have known him.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3asa"></A>
<B>As soon as</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. immediately when:&nbsp; Write to me <B>as soon as</B> you can.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3at"></A>
<B>As though</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. in a similar way:&nbsp; It looks <B>as though</B> there will be a storm.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3ei"></A>
<B>Even if</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. in spite of a possibility:&nbsp; I am going out <B>even if</B> it rains.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3ic"></A>
<B>In case</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. because of a possibility:&nbsp; Take a sweater <B>in case</B> it gets cold.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3oe"></A>
<B>Or else</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. otherwise:&nbsp; Please be careful, <B>or else</B> you may have an accident.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="3sat"></A>
<B>So as to</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. in order to:&nbsp; I hurried <B>so as to</B> be on time.<BR>
<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex28.html#3">Exercise 3</A>.<BR>
<A NAME="3dif"></A>
<BR>
Certain words, such as <B>after</B>, <B>before</B>, <B>since</B> and <B>until</B>
may function either as prepositions or subordinate conjunctions.
However it should be noted that in some cases different words must be used as
prepositions and subordinate conjunctions, in order to express
similar meanings. This is illustrated in the table below.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 407-->
<CENTER><B>Differing Prepositions and Conjunctions</B></CENTER><BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Meaning</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Preposition</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Conjunction</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; for this reason</TD><TD>&nbsp; because of</TD><TD>&nbsp; because</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; in spite of this</TD><TD>&nbsp; despite</TD><TD>&nbsp; although</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; at the time when</TD><TD>&nbsp; during</TD><TD>&nbsp; while</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; in a similar way</TD><TD>&nbsp; like</TD><TD>&nbsp; as if</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
In the following examples, the objects of the prepositions, and the verbs of the subordinate clauses are underlined.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Preposition</U>: They were upset <B>because of</B> the <U>delay</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Conjunction</U>: They were upset <B>because</B> they <U>were delayed</U>.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Preposition</U>: <B>Despite</B> the <U>rain</U>, we enjoyed ourselves.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Conjunction</U>: <B>Although</B> it <U>rained</U>, we enjoyed ourselves.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Preposition</U>: We stayed indoors <B>during</B> the <U>storm</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Conjunction</U>: We stayed indoors <B>while</B> the storm <U>raged</U>.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Preposition</U>: It looks <B>like</B> <U>rain</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Conjunction</U>: It looks <B>as if</B> it <U>will rain</U>.<BR>
<BR>
In the above examples, it can be seen that the prepositions <B>because of</B>,
<B>despite</B>, <B>during</B> and <B>like</B> have the noun objects <B>delay</B>, <B>rain</B> and <B>storm</B>; whereas the subordinate conjunctions <B>because</B>, <B>although</B>,
<B>while</B> and <B>as if</B> introduce subordinate clauses containing the verbs <B>were delayed</B>, <B>rained</B>, <B>raged</B> and <B>will rain</B>.<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that <B>like</B> is sometimes used as a subordinate
conjunction in informal English.<BR>
e.g. It looks <U>like</U> it will rain.<BR>
However, this use of <B>like</B> is considered incorrect in formal English.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex28.html#4">Exercise 4</A>.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="4"></A>
<CENTER><B>4. Connecting adverbs</B></CENTER><BR>

Connecting adverbs are often used to show the relationship between the
ideas expressed in a clause and the ideas expressed in a preceding clause,
sentence or paragraph. In the following examples, the connecting adverbs
are printed in bold type.<BR>
e.g. I wanted to study; <B>however</B>, I was too tired.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; We knew what to expect. <B>Therefore</B>, we were not surprised at what
happened.<BR>
<BR>
In the first example, the connecting adverb <B>however</B> shows that there
is a conflict between the idea expressed in the clause <B>I was too tired</B>
and the idea expressed in the preceding clause <B>I wanted to study</B>. In
the second example, the connecting adverb <B>therefore</B> shows that there
is a cause and effect relationship between the idea expressed in the
sentence <B>we knew what to expect</B>, and the clause <B>we were not surprised
at what happened</B>.<BR>
<A NAME="4cc"></A>
<BR>

<!--page 408-->
Connecting adverbs are similar to conjunctions in that both may be
used to introduce clauses. However, the use of connecting adverbs
differs from that of conjunctions in the ways indicated below.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="4a"></A>
<B>a. Stress and punctuation</B><BR>
In spoken English, a connecting adverb is usually given more stress than
a conjunction. Correspondingly, in formal written English a connecting
adverb is usually separated from the rest of a clause by commas, whereas
a conjunction is usually not separated from the rest of a clause by commas.<BR>
<BR>
In addition, in formal written English a clause containing a connecting
adverb is often separated from a preceding clause by a semicolon; whereas
a clause beginning with a conjunction is usually not separated from a
preceding clause by a semicolon.<BR>
e.g. I wanted to study; <B>however</B>, I was too tired.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I wanted to study, <B>but</B> I was too tired.<BR>
In the first example, the connecting adverb <B>however</B> is preceded by a
semicolon, and is separated from <B>I was too tired</B> by a comma. In the
second example, the conjunction <B>but</B> is preceded by a comma rather than
by a semicolon, and is not separated from <B>I was too tired</B> by a comma.<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that when no conjunction is present, a semicolon may
be used to connect two main clauses. For example:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The clouds dispersed; the moon rose.<BR>
In this example, the two main clauses <B>the clouds dispersed</B> and
<B>the moon rose</B> are connected by a semicolon rather than by a
conjunction.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="4b"></A>
<B>b. Connecting adverbs used to connect sentences</B><BR>
Unlike conjunctions, connecting adverbs may be used in formal English to
show the relationship between ideas expressed in separate sentences. For example:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The wind was strong. <B>Thus</B>, I felt very cold.<BR>
In this example, the connecting adverb <B>thus</B> shows that there is a cause
and effect relationship between the ideas expressed by the two sentences
<B>the wind was strong</B> and <B>I felt very cold</B>.<BR>
<BR>
In informal English, coordinate conjunctions are sometimes used to show the relationship between the ideas expressed in separate sentences. For example:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The wind was strong. <U>And</U> I felt very cold.<BR>
However, this use of coordinate conjunctions is considered to be
grammatically incorrect in formal English.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="4c"></A>
<B>c. Position in a clause</B><BR>
A subordinate conjunction must usually be placed at the beginning of a
clause. However, as was seen in the discussion on <A HREF="gramch24.html#2a">adverbs</A>, a connecting
adverb may be placed at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a
clause. This is illustrated below.<BR>
e.g. His visit was unexpected. <B>Nevertheless</B>, I was pleased to see him.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; His visit was unexpected. I was, <B>nevertheless</B>, pleased to see him.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; His visit was unexpected. I was pleased to see him, <B>nevertheless</B>.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 409-->
<A NAME="4d"></A>
<B>d. Examples of connecting adverbs</B><BR>
The following are examples of words which may be used as connecting
adverbs. Each connecting adverb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.<BR>
<BR>
<CENTER><B>Connecting Adverbs</B></CENTER><BR>
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><B>accordingly</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; so</TD><TD>&nbsp; He was very persuasive; <B>accordingly</B>, I did what he asked.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>also</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; in addition</TD><TD>&nbsp; She is my neighbor; she is <B>also</B> my best friend.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>besides</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; in addition</TD><TD>&nbsp; I like the job. <B>Besides</B>, I need the money.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>consequently</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; so</TD><TD>&nbsp; She had a fever; <B>consequently</B>, she stayed at home.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>furthermore</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; in addition</TD><TD>&nbsp; You should stop smoking. <B>Furthermore</B>, you should do it at once!</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>hence</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; for that reason</TD><TD>&nbsp; He is a good friend. <B>Hence</B>, I was not embarrassed to ask him for help.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>however</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; but</TD><TD>&nbsp; We wanted to arrive on time; <B>however</B>, we were delayed by traffic.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>likewise</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; in addition</TD><TD>&nbsp; The region is beautiful. <B>Likewise</B>, the climate is excellent.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>moreover</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; in addition</TD><TD>&nbsp; She is very intelligent; <B>moreover</B>, she is very ambitious.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>nevertheless</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; but</TD><TD>&nbsp; They are proud. <B>Nevertheless</B>, I like them.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>nonetheless</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; but</TD><TD>&nbsp; The ascent was dangerous. <B>Nonetheless</B>, he decided to attempt it.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>otherwise</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; if not, or else</TD><TD>&nbsp; We should consult them; <B>otherwise</B>, they may be upset.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>still</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; but</TD><TD>&nbsp; It is a long way to the beach. <B>Still</B>, it is a fine day to go swimming.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>then</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; 1. next, afterwards</TD><TD>&nbsp; We went shopping, <B>then</B> we had lunch.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; 2. so</TD><TD>&nbsp; If you are sure, <B>then</B> I must believe you.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>therefore</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; for that reason</TD><TD>&nbsp; I was nervous; <B>therefore</B>, I could not do my best.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD><B>thus</B><B>:</B>&nbsp; so, in this way</TD><TD>&nbsp; He travelled as quickly as possible. <B>Thus</B>, he reached Boston the next day.</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<A NAME="4dsu"></A>
<BR>

<!--page 410-->
As indicated in the following table, several connecting adverbs
have meanings similar to those of the conjunctions <B>and</B>, <B>but</B> or <B>so</B>.<BR>
<BR>
<CENTER><B>Connecting Adverbs with meanings similar to And, But and So</B></CENTER><BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Similar to And</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Similar to But</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Similar to So</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; also</TD><TD>&nbsp; however</TD><TD>&nbsp; accordingly</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; besides</TD><TD>&nbsp; nevertheless</TD><TD>&nbsp; consequently</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; furthermore</TD><TD>&nbsp; nonetheless</TD><TD>&nbsp; hence</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; likewise</TD><TD>&nbsp; still</TD><TD>&nbsp; therefore</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; moreover</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; thus</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
See <A HREF="gramex28.html#5">Exercises 5</A> and <A HREF="gramex28.html#6">6</A>.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="5"></A>
<CENTER><B>5. Parallel construction</B></CENTER><BR>

The repetition of a particular grammatical construction is often
referred to as <B>parallel construction</B>. This is illustrated in the following examples.<BR>
e.g. I am <B>neither</B> <U>angry</U> <B>nor</B> <U>excited</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The resort contains <U>tennis courts</U>, <U>swimming pools</U> and <U>a snack bar</U>.<BR>
In the first example, the two phrases <B>neither angry</B> and <B>nor excited</B> exhibit
parallel construction. In the second example, the three phrases <B>tennis courts</B>,
<B>swimming pools</B> and <B>a snack bar</B> exhibit parallel construction.<BR>
<A NAME="5pl"></A>
<BR>
In English, it is considered preferable to use parallel construction  whenever parallel ideas
are expressed.<BR>
<A NAME="5cc"></A>
<BR>
Thus, whenever possible, parallel construction should be employed when 
correlative conjunctions are used. In the following example, the
correlative conjunctions are printed in bold type.<BR>
e.g. <U>Incorrect</U>: He has <B>both</B> a good education, <B>and</B> he has good work habits.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Corrected</U>: He has <B>both</B> <U>a good education</U> <B>and</B> <U>good work habits</U>.<BR>
The first sentence is incorrect, since <B>both</B> and <B>and</B> are followed by
different grammatical constructions. <B>Both</B> is followed by the phrase
<B>a good education</B>; whereas <B>and</B> is followed by the clause <B>he has good
work habits</B>. The second sentence has been corrected by changing the
clause <B>he has good work habits</B> into the phrase <B>good work habits</B>.<BR>
<BR>
The following example illustrates the use of parallel construction with
the correlative conjunctions <B>neither ... nor</B>.<BR>
e.g. <U>Incorrect</U>: She turned <B>neither</B> right <B>nor</B> to the left.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Corrected</U>: She turned <B>neither</B> <U>right</U> <B>nor</B> <U>left</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <B>or</B> <U>Corrected</U>: She turned <B>neither</B> <U>to the right</U> <B>nor</B> <U>to the left</U>.<BR>
The first sentence is incorrect, since <B>neither</B> is followed by a single
word; whereas <B>nor</B> is followed by a prepositional phrase. The second
sentence has been corrected by changing the phrase <B>to the left</B> to the
word <B>left</B>. Alternatively, as shown in the third sentence, two prepositional phrases can be used.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex28.html#7">Exercise 7</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 411-->
Parallel
construction should also be used when listing a series of ideas. For example:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Incorrect</U>: The hotel is charming, well-situated and is not expensive.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Corrected</U>: The hotel is <U>charming</U>, <U>well-situated</U> and <U>inexpensive</U>.<BR>
The first sentence is incorrect, since the first two items in the series,
<B>charming</B> and <B>well-situated</B>, are adjectives, whereas the last item,
<B>is not expensive</B>, contains a verb. The second sentence has been
corrected by changing <B>is not expensive</B> to the adjective <B>inexpensive</B>.<BR>
<BR>
The following is another example of the use of parallel
construction when listing a series of ideas.<BR>
e.g. <U>Incorrect</U>: I like to ski, skating and swimming.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Corrected</U>: I like <U>skiing,</U> <U>skating</U> and <U>swimming</U>.<BR>
The first sentence is incorrect, since the first item in the series,
<B>to ski</B>, is an infinitive, whereas the second and third items,
<B>skating</B> and <B>swimming</B>, are gerunds. The second sentence has been
corrected by changing the infinitive <B>to ski</B> to the gerund <B>skiing</B>.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex28.html#8">Exercise 8</A>.

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